BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1.
Give examples for glycoconjugates.
Glycoconjugates
are compounds that consist of carbohydrates covalently linked to other types of
chemical species. Examples include:
·
Glycoproteins: Proteins with carbohydrate groups
attached. Examples are antibodies and hormones like erythropoietin.
·
Glycolipids: Lipids with carbohydrate groups
attached. Examples are cerebrosides and gangliosides.
·
Proteoglycans: Heavily glycosylated proteins
found in connective tissue. Examples are aggrecan and syndecan.
2.
Distinguish phospholipids and glycolipids. Give examples.
·
Phospholipids: Contain a phosphate group and are
major components of cell membranes. Examples include phosphatidylcholine and
phosphatidylserine.
·
Glycolipids: Contain carbohydrate groups and
are involved in cell recognition and signaling. Examples include cerebrosides
and gangliosides.
3.
What are essential and non-essential amino acids? Give examples.
·
Essential
Amino Acids:
Cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained from the diet.
Examples include leucine, lysine, and methionine.
·
Non-Essential
Amino Acids:
Can be synthesized by the body. Examples include alanine, aspartic acid, and
glutamine.
4.
Name any four conjugate proteins.
Conjugate
proteins consist of a protein and a non-protein component. Examples include:
·
Hemoglobin: A heme-containing protein.
·
Myoglobin: Another heme-containing protein.
·
Cytochromes: Proteins with heme groups involved
in electron transport.
·
Glycoproteins: Proteins with carbohydrate groups
attached, such as antibodies.
5.
List biological importance of lipids.
Lipids
play several crucial roles in biology:
·
Energy
Storage:
Triglycerides store energy.
·
Structural
Components:
Phospholipids and cholesterol are key components of cell membranes.
·
Insulation
and Protection:
Fat provides insulation and protects organs.
·
Signaling
Molecules: Steroids
and prostaglandins act as hormones and signaling molecules.
6.
What are coenzymes? Give examples.
Coenzymes
are organic non-protein molecules that bind to enzymes and assist in enzyme
activity. Examples include:
·
NAD+
(Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide): Involved in redox reactions.
·
FAD
(Flavin adenine dinucleotide): Also involved in redox reactions.
·
Coenzyme
A: Important in the synthesis and
oxidation of fatty acids.
·
Biotin: Involved in carboxylation
reactions.
7.
List four applications of enzymes.
Enzymes
have a variety of applications, including:
·
Industrial
Biotechnology:
Used in the production of biofuels, paper, and detergents.
·
Medical
Diagnostics:
Enzymes like glucose oxidase are used in blood glucose testing.
·
Pharmaceutical
Industry: Enzymes
are used to produce antibiotics and other drugs.
·
Food
Industry: Enzymes
like amylase and protease are used in food processing.
8.
Define glycogenolysis and glycogenesis.
·
Glycogenolysis: The breakdown of glycogen to
glucose, which occurs in the liver and muscles.
·
Glycogenesis: The synthesis of glycogen from
glucose, which occurs in the liver and muscles.
9.
Draw labelled diagram of mitochondria.
10.
Write about pulmonary volumes.
Pulmonary
volumes refer to the volumes of air associated with different phases of the
respiratory cycle. Key volumes include:
·
Tidal
Volume (TV):
Amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing (~500 mL).
·
Inspiratory
Reserve Volume (IRV):
Additional air that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation (~3000 mL).
·
Expiratory
Reserve Volume (ERV):
Additional air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation (~1200 mL).
·
Residual
Volume (RV):
Amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation (~1200 mL).
11.
Define Bohr Effect.
The Bohr
Effect refers to the phenomenon where an increase in carbon dioxide
concentration and a decrease in pH (more acidic environment) result in the
reduction of hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen, facilitating oxygen release to
tissues.
12.
Define chloride shift.
The
chloride shift, or Hamburger phenomenon, is the exchange of chloride ions (Cl-)
and bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) across the red blood cell membrane. When carbon
dioxide enters the blood, it is converted to bicarbonate, which diffuses out of
the red blood cells, and chloride ions move in to maintain electrochemical
balance.
13.
Write components of blood in detail.
Blood is
composed of:
·
Plasma: The liquid component (~55% of
blood) containing water, proteins (albumin, globulins, fibrinogen),
electrolytes, nutrients, hormones, and waste products.
·
Red
Blood Cells (Erythrocytes):
Carry oxygen from the lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to the
lungs.
·
White
Blood Cells (Leukocytes):
Part of the immune system; types include neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes,
eosinophils, and basophils.
·
Platelets
(Thrombocytes):
Involved in blood clotting.
14.
Draw labelled diagram of neuron.
15.
Define synapse? Mention the types.
·
Synapse: A junction between two neurons or
between a neuron and a target cell where nerve impulses are transmitted.
·
Types
of Synapses:
- Chemical
Synapse:
Involves neurotransmitter release from the presynaptic neuron to the
postsynaptic neuron.
- Electrical
Synapse:
Involves direct electrical communication through gap junctions.
16.
Name four hormones secreted by pituitary gland.
·
Growth Hormone (GH)
·
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
·
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
·
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
17.
What is muscle twitch and muscle tetanus.
·
Muscle
Twitch: A
single, rapid contraction and relaxation of a muscle fiber in response to a
single stimulus.
·
Muscle
Tetanus: A
sustained muscle contraction resulting from repeated stimulation without
relaxation.
18.
Define saturated and unsaturated fatty acids? Give examples.
·
Saturated
Fatty Acids:
Have no double bonds between carbon atoms; they are fully saturated with hydrogen
atoms. Examples include stearic acid and palmitic acid.
·
Unsaturated
Fatty Acids:
Have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. Examples include oleic acid
(monounsaturated) and linoleic acid (polyunsaturated)
19.
List properties of enzymes.
·
Specificity: Enzymes are specific to
substrates.
·
Catalytic
Efficiency: Enzymes
greatly increase the rate of reactions.
·
Regulation: Enzyme activity can be regulated
by inhibitors and activators.
·
Cofactor
Requirement:
Some enzymes require non-protein cofactors for activity.
· Temperature
and pH Sensitivity:
Enzymes function optimally at specific temperatures and pH levels.
20.
Short notes on ketogenesis.
Ketogenesis
is the metabolic process by which ketone bodies are produced from fatty acids
in the liver. It occurs during prolonged fasting, low-carbohydrate diets, or
uncontrolled diabetes mellitus. Ketone bodies, such as acetoacetate,
beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone, are used as alternative energy sources by
various tissues, especially the brain.
21.
Name the hormones secreted by pancreas.
The pancreas secretes several
hormones, including:
·
Insulin: Lowers blood glucose levels.
·
Glucagon: Raises blood glucose levels.
·
Somatostatin: Inhibits the release of insulin
and glucagon.
·
Pancreatic
Polypeptide:
Regulates pancreatic secretions and gastrointestinal motility.
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